Scheduled Castes: Social Basis, Criteria of Identification, and Problems

Scheduled Castes (SCs) represent one of the most marginalized and historically disadvantaged groups in Indian society. The term “Scheduled Castes” was first introduced in the Government of India Act, 1935, and later adopted by the Indian Constitution to identify and provide affirmative action for communities that have faced centuries of social, economic, and political exclusion. The sociological study of Scheduled Castes involves understanding their social basis, the criteria used for their identification, and the persistent problems they face in contemporary society. This article delves into these aspects, highlighting the structural and systemic nature of caste-based discrimination and its implications for social justice.

Social Basis of Scheduled Castes

The social basis of Scheduled Castes lies in the hierarchical structure of the caste system, which has been a defining feature of Indian society for millennia. The caste system is a rigid social stratification that divides society into hereditary groups, known as varnas and jatis, with Brahmins (priests and scholars) at the top and Shudras (servants and laborers) at the bottom. Below the Shudras are the Dalits, or “untouchables,” who have historically been excluded from the varna system and subjected to severe social ostracism, economic exploitation, and cultural stigmatization.

The social basis of Scheduled Castes is rooted in the practice of untouchability, which relegated certain communities to the margins of society. These communities were assigned occupations considered “polluting” or “impure,” such as manual scavenging, leatherwork, and disposal of dead animals. The caste system enforced strict rules of social interaction, prohibiting physical contact, inter-dining, and inter-marriage between castes. This systemic exclusion was justified through religious and cultural narratives that legitimized the superiority of upper castes and the inferiority of Dalits.

The social basis of Scheduled Castes is also tied to the concept of purity and pollution, which underpins the caste hierarchy. Dalits were considered “polluted” and were often denied access to public spaces, temples, and water sources. This dehumanizing treatment was not merely a social custom but a deeply entrenched system of oppression that perpetuated inequality and denied Dalits their basic human rights.

Criteria of Identification of Scheduled Castes

The identification of Scheduled Castes is a complex process that involves historical, social, and administrative considerations. The Indian Constitution provides the framework for identifying SCs, but the criteria vary across states and regions. The following are the key criteria used for identifying Scheduled Castes:

1. Historical Social Exclusion: The primary criterion for identifying SCs is their historical exclusion from the caste hierarchy and their subjection to untouchability. Communities that have faced systemic discrimination and social ostracism due to their caste status are included in the SC category.
2. Occupational Status: Traditionally, SCs were assigned occupations considered “unclean” or “polluting,” such as manual scavenging, tanning, and sweeping. These occupations were stigmatized and reinforced their low social status.
3. Geographical Distribution: The identification of SCs also takes into account their geographical concentration. Certain communities are recognized as SCs in specific states or regions but not in others, reflecting the localized nature of caste-based discrimination.
4. Social and Educational Backwardness: SCs are identified based on their social and educational backwardness, which is a result of centuries of exclusion and deprivation. This criterion is used to determine their eligibility for affirmative action policies, such as reservations in education and employment.
5. Legal and Administrative Recognition: The inclusion of a community in the SC list is a legal and administrative process. The President of India, in consultation with state governments and the Parliament, has the authority to modify the list of SCs under Article 341 of the Constitution.

Problems Faced by Scheduled Castes

Despite constitutional safeguards and affirmative action policies, Scheduled Castes continue to face numerous problems that hinder their social, economic, and political progress. These problems are deeply rooted in the caste system and are perpetuated by structural inequalities and cultural prejudices. The following are some of the key problems faced by SCs:

1. Social Discrimination and Untouchability: Although untouchability has been legally abolished under Article 17 of the Indian Constitution, it persists in various forms, particularly in rural areas. SCs often face social boycotts, segregation, and violence when they assert their rights or challenge caste norms. Instances of caste-based violence, such as lynching, rape, and arson, are reported regularly, highlighting the pervasive nature of caste discrimination.
2. Economic Exploitation: SCs are disproportionately represented among the poor and landless. They often work in low-paying, insecure, and hazardous jobs, such as manual scavenging, construction labor, and agricultural work. The lack of access to land, credit, and resources perpetuates their economic marginalization.
3. Educational Disparities: Despite reservations in educational institutions, SCs continue to face barriers to education. High dropout rates, inadequate infrastructure, and discrimination in schools contribute to low literacy rates among SCs. The quality of education in government schools, where most SC children study, is often poor, limiting their opportunities for upward mobility.
4. Political Underrepresentation: While reservations in local governance (Panchayati Raj institutions) have increased the political participation of SCs, they remain underrepresented in higher levels of government and decision-making bodies. Caste-based discrimination and violence often deter SCs from contesting elections or exercising their political rights.
5. Health and Sanitation Issues: SCs have limited access to healthcare and sanitation facilities, leading to poor health outcomes. Manual scavengers, who are predominantly from SC communities, are exposed to life-threatening conditions and suffer from chronic illnesses. The lack of proper sanitation facilities in SC neighborhoods further exacerbates their vulnerability to diseases.
6. Cultural Stigmatization: SCs continue to face cultural stigmatization and stereotyping, which reinforces their inferior status. They are often depicted in a negative light in media and popular culture, perpetuating caste-based prejudices. The practice of caste-based endogamy and the taboo against inter-caste marriages further entrench caste divisions.

Example of Some Scheduled Castes (SCs)

In India, Scheduled Castes (SCs) comprise a diverse range of communities that have historically faced social exclusion, discrimination, and economic exploitation due to the caste system. Each community has its unique history, occupation, and cultural practices. Below is a list of some prominent Scheduled Castes and a brief description of their background:

1. Chamar

About: The Chamar community is one of the largest Scheduled Castes in India, primarily found in states like Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and Bihar. Traditionally, they were associated with leatherwork, tanning, and shoemaking, occupations considered “polluting” under the caste system. Despite their historical marginalization, many Chamars have actively participated in social and political movements for Dalit rights.

2. Balmiki (Valmiki)

• About: The Balmiki community, also known as Valmiki, is traditionally associated with sanitation work, including manual scavenging and sweeping. They are found across India, particularly in urban areas. The community derives its name from the sage Valmiki, the author of the Ramayana, and many Balmikis take pride in this association. However, they continue to face severe social stigma due to their traditional occupation.

3. Dhobi

• About: The Dhobi community is traditionally involved in washing clothes. They are found in almost every part of India and are known for their expertise in laundry work. Despite their essential role in society, they have faced discrimination and economic marginalization due to their caste status.

4. Pasi

• About: The Pasi community is primarily found in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Traditionally, they were involved in toddy tapping (extracting palm sap) and bamboo work. Over time, many Pasis have shifted to agriculture and other occupations. They have been active in Dalit political movements and have produced several prominent leaders.

5. Mahar

• About: The Mahar community is one of the largest Scheduled Castes in Maharashtra. Historically, they were village servants and performed tasks such as guarding villages and maintaining records. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, the architect of the Indian Constitution and a champion of Dalit rights, belonged to the Mahar community. The Mahars have played a significant role in the Dalit Buddhist movement.

6. Madiga

• About: The Madiga community is primarily found in Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka. Traditionally, they were involved in leatherwork, tanning, and making footwear. The Madigas have been at the forefront of Dalit activism in South India and have demanded greater representation within the Scheduled Caste category.

7. Dusadh

• About: The Dusadh community is mainly found in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. Traditionally, they were associated with farming and labor work. The Dusadhs have a rich cultural heritage and celebrate festivals like Dusadh Parab. They have also been active in Dalit politics and social reform movements.

8. Adi Dravida

• About: The Adi Dravida community is predominantly found in Tamil Nadu. They are considered the original inhabitants of the region and were historically subjected to severe caste-based discrimination. The term “Adi Dravida” means “original Dravidians,” emphasizing their indigenous identity. They have been active in social and political movements for Dalit rights in Tamil Nadu.

9. Khatik

• About: The Khatik community is found in states like Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh. Traditionally, they were involved in animal slaughtering and selling meat. Over time, many Khatiks have shifted to agriculture and small businesses. They face social stigma due to their traditional occupation.

10. Mehtar (Bhanghi)

• About: The Mehtar community, also known as Bhanghi, is traditionally associated with sanitation work, including sweeping and cleaning. They are found across India and have faced severe social exclusion and discrimination due to their occupation. The community has been actively involved in movements for the eradication of manual scavenging.

11. Dom

About: The Dom community is primarily found in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal. Traditionally, they were involved in cremation work and basket weaving. The Doms have faced significant social stigma due to their association with death-related occupations. Despite this, they have a rich cultural heritage and have contributed to folk music and art.

12. Chuhra

• About: The Chuhra community is found in Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan. Traditionally, they were involved in sanitation work and manual scavenging. Many Chuhras converted to Christianity, Sikhism, or Buddhism to escape caste-based discrimination. They continue to face social and economic challenges.

13. Paswan (Dusadh)

• About: The Paswan community, also known as Dusadh, is primarily found in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. They have traditionally been involved in agriculture and labor work. The Paswans have been politically active and have produced leaders like Ram Vilas Paswan, a prominent Dalit politician.

14. Mala

• About: The Mala community is predominantly found in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. Traditionally, they were agricultural laborers and weavers. The Malas have been active in Dalit movements and have demanded greater representation and rights within the Scheduled Caste category.

15. Namasudra

• About: The Namasudra community is primarily found in West Bengal and Bangladesh. Traditionally, they were involved in farming and fishing. The Namasudras have been active in social reform movements and have played a significant role in Dalit politics in Bengal.

16. Kori

• About: The Kori community is primarily found in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh. Traditionally, they were involved in weaving and making coarse cloth. The Koris have faced economic marginalization and social discrimination due to their low caste status. Over time, many have shifted to agriculture and other occupations.

17. Bauri

• About: The Bauri community is predominantly found in West Bengal, Odisha, and Jharkhand. Traditionally, they were agricultural laborers and involved in menial jobs. The Bauris have a rich cultural heritage, including folk music and dance forms like Bauria Nach. Despite their contributions to culture, they continue to face social and economic challenges.

18. Adi Karnataka

• About: The Adi Karnataka community is primarily found in Karnataka. They are considered one of the oldest indigenous communities in the region. Traditionally, they were agricultural laborers and involved in manual work. The Adi Karnataka community has been active in social and political movements for Dalit rights in Karnataka.

19. Holar

• About: The Holar community, also known as Holaya or Holeya, is found in Karnataka and Maharashtra. Traditionally, they were agricultural laborers and bonded workers. The Holars have faced severe exploitation and discrimination due to their caste status. Efforts have been made to improve their socio-economic conditions through education and affirmative action policies.

20. Relli

• About: The Relli community is primarily found in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. Traditionally, they were involved in sweeping, cleaning, and other sanitation-related work. The Rellis have faced significant social stigma and economic marginalization due to their traditional occupation. They have been active in movements for the eradication of manual scavenging and caste-based discrimination.

The Scheduled Castes in India represent a diverse array of communities, each with its unique history, culture, and struggles. Despite their differences, they share a common experience of caste-based discrimination and social exclusion. Understanding the specificities of each community is crucial for addressing their unique challenges and ensuring their inclusion in the social, economic, and political fabric of India. Affirmative action policies, social reform movements, and cultural empowerment are essential for the upliftment of these communities and the eradication of caste-based inequalities.

Conclusion

The sociological study of Scheduled Castes reveals the deep-rooted and multifaceted nature of caste-based discrimination in India. The social basis of SCs lies in the hierarchical and exclusionary structure of the caste system, which has historically denied them dignity, rights, and opportunities. The criteria for identifying SCs reflect their historical and ongoing marginalization, while the problems they face underscore the persistent challenges of achieving social justice and equality.

Addressing the issues faced by Scheduled Castes requires a comprehensive approach that goes beyond legal and policy measures. It necessitates a transformation of social attitudes, cultural norms, and economic structures that perpetuate caste-based inequalities. Education, awareness, and collective action are crucial for challenging caste discrimination and building an inclusive society where every individual, regardless of their caste, can live with dignity and equality. The struggle for the rights of Scheduled Castes is not just their fight but a collective responsibility of society as a whole. Only by confronting the deep-seated prejudices and systemic inequalities can we hope to create a just and equitable future for all.

Topic Related Questions

5 Marks Questions (Short Answer Type)

1. Define Scheduled Castes (SCs) and explain their social basis in Indian society.
2. What is the historical significance of the term “Scheduled Castes” in the Indian Constitution?
3. List the key criteria used for identifying Scheduled Castes in India.
4. Briefly explain the concept of untouchability and its impact on Scheduled Castes.
5. What are the major occupational challenges faced by Scheduled Castes in India?

10 Marks Questions (Detailed Answer Type)

1. Discuss the social basis of Scheduled Castes in the context of the caste system and its hierarchical structure.
2. Explain the criteria used for identifying Scheduled Castes in India. How do these criteria vary across states?
3. Analyze the role of the Indian Constitution in addressing the issues faced by Scheduled Castes.
4. Discuss the economic exploitation faced by Scheduled Castes, with examples from rural and urban areas.
5. Examine the educational disparities faced by Scheduled Castes and the impact of reservation policies on their access to education.

15 Marks Questions (Essay Type)

1. Critically analyze the social basis of Scheduled Castes in India, highlighting the role of the caste system and the practice of untouchability.
2. Discuss the criteria for identifying Scheduled Castes in India. How effective are these criteria in addressing the historical and social exclusion of SCs?
3. Examine the persistent problems faced by Scheduled Castes in contemporary India, focusing on social discrimination, economic exploitation, and political underrepresentation.
4. Evaluate the impact of affirmative action policies, such as reservations, on the socio-economic upliftment of Scheduled Castes in India.
5. “The struggle for Scheduled Castes is not just a fight for rights but a fight for dignity.” Discuss this statement in the context of the social, economic, and cultural challenges faced by SCs in India.

Explanation of Question Types

• 5 Marks Questions: These are concise and require brief explanations or definitions. They test the student’s basic understanding of the topic.
• 10 Marks Questions: These require a more detailed explanation, often involving examples, analysis, or discussion of key concepts.
• 15 Marks Questions: These are essay-type questions that demand a comprehensive analysis, critical evaluation, and well-structured arguments supported by relevant examples and data.